Allison Claire Peterson Spies

Clara Hardy

Gender and Sexuality in Antiquity

2-11-02

Vain Justification:

Vanity as an Excuse for Deception and its Inherent Futility

For many centuries, the art of deception has been a powerful tool for achieving goals, and it has spawned the ancient debate of the ends justifying the means. In the tragedy Philoctetes by Sophocles and in Hesiod's Theogony, there are many instances of deception, particularly on the part of men in the texts. For each of them, the deceit is justified as a means of building and maintaining a reputation or obtaining power. Ultimately, however, the use of deception results in putting the men in positions of further vulnerability.

In Philoctetes, the character of Odysseus is portrayed as well accustomed to using deceit for personal gain without much consideration for morality or human compassion. He not only deceives Philoctetes himself, but he has the audacity to con Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, into doing the same. Odysseus's first deception of Philoctetes happens before his second arrival on Lemnos with Neoptolemus. Odysseus and his crew maroon the injured Philoctetes on the island with no one to help him by sneaking away while he is asleep. Odysseus explains their reasons for abandoning him:

We had no peace with him: at the holy festivals,

we dared not touch the wine and meat; he screamed

and groaned so, and those terrible cries of his

brought ill luck on our celebrations (Phil. lines 6-9).

No one is able to heal Philoctetes because his disease was inflicted on him by divine power. Nor does he have the self-control to keep quiet, even during religious ceremonies, and his lack of self-discipline reflects poorly on the group as a whole. Philoctetes's unrestrained howling during solemn occasions jeopardizes their dignity and their reputations as serious and powerful men.

Odysseus returns to Lemnos only because he realizes that, in order to sack Troy, he must have the bow of Heracles which is in Philoctetes's possession. He claims that the only way to take the bow is through cunning and deception. Even though this is dishonorable, he justifies it with reasons of personal gain. Odysseus says to Neoptolemus, "I know, young man, it is not your natural bent to say such things nor to contrive such mischief. But the prize of victory is pleasant to win. Bear up: another time we shall prove honest" (Phil. lines 79-82). And when Neoptolemus continues to object, insisting that lying is shameful, Odysseus asserts that, "when one does something for gain, one need not blush" (Phil. line 111). Odysseus believes that his deception of Philoctetes is acceptable because it will lead him to victory and power.

Neoptolemus eventually consents to take part in the deception as well, despite his initial reluctance. His reason for reconsidering is the prospect of improving his personal reputation. In the debate with Odysseus, he asks what he could possibly gain by participating in the ruse. Odysseus responds, "You shall be called a wise man and a good" (Phil line 119). Neoptolemus immediately agrees, and whole-heartedly, that this is a very worthy reason for deceit. He has argued that lying is vile cheating, but when tempted with the prospect of a good reputation, he no longer objects to using trickery.

Odysseus, with his renowned craft, may appear to have won his case at the end of Philoctetes and justified deceit with victory, but he leaves himself in a dangerous position. The appearance of Heracles as deus-ex-machina in the final scene seems to back up Odysseus's goal and excuse his behavior by saying it is Zeus's will that Philoctetes go with them to Troy. The consequences of Odysseus's deceitful actions, however, remain. "Land of my fathers, Gods that look on men's deeds, take vengeance on these men, in your own good time, upon them all, if you have pity on me!" cries Philoctetes, cursing the name of Odysseus (Phil. lines 1040-1042). Odysseus's actions may seem justified, but nine years of torment and humiliation make Philoctetes a formidable enemy. An invocation of the gods is powerful and hard to erase, and its utterance exposes Odysseus to divine retribution—a considerable vulnerability.

Neoptolemus too, although he regrets his involvement at the conclusion of the play, realizes exactly what he has put at stake by taking part in the deception. "Shame shall be ours," he says, "if we boast and our lies still leave victory unwon" (Phil. lines 842-843). It is clear to him that the method they have taken to gaining the bow of Heracles puts at risk his precious reputation. If by any chance Troy is lost to the Greeks, they will not only be shamed by loss, but by unjustified injustice and dishonor.

Similar objectives to those of Odysseus and Neoptolemus are seen as reason for deceit in Theogony by Hesiod. The first clear example of male deception occurs when Kronos hides in Gaia's womb to castrate his father, Ouranos. Kronos's initial reason for this violence is a matter of revenge. He says to Gaia, "Mother, this deed I promise you will be done, since I loathe my dread-named father. It was he who first plotted shameful actions" (Theo. lines 70-72). Ouranos's "wicked work" that Kronos speaks of was keeping his children in Gaia's womb, and Kronos wishes to punish his father for his behavior. The act completed, however, successfully places Kronos in the position of supreme power, and it is conceivable that this was part of his original intentions as well.

Hesiod tells the story of Kronos's rise to power after castrating his father, but he also tells of his downfall, and the two are indisputably linked. Kronos makes a practice of swallowing his own children, aware and afraid of the vulnerability of a seat of power. This preventative motion, however, only gives reason for Zeus, his son, to rise up against him. Hesiod expresses quite plainly the repercussions of Kronos's deceitful action against his own father. "[Kronos] had learned from Gaia and starry Ouranos that he, despite his power, was fated to be subdued by his own son, a victim of his own schemes" (Theo. lines 463-465). The result of his trickery is his doom—being overthrown by his own offspring.

The man Prometheus is another prime example of deception in Theogony. He deceives Zeus twice—once through a devious offering, and again by plotting to steal fire back from the gods. It is stated that Prometheus commits his first act of treachery in order "to trick [Zeus's] mind" (Theo. line 536). Zeus is the all-powerful king of the gods, and is supposed to be indomitable. By successfully deceiving Zeus, Prometheus shows his own power and gains a reputation of craftiness. But like the rest of these once cunning men, he manages through these actions to place himself in danger of greater harm.

Prometheus is perhaps both the most devious and the most severely punished of the four examples here. He commits two acts of deception against Zeus, and is duly punished. Fire is taken from man for the fraudulent offering. When Prometheus takes back fire hidden in the fennel stalk, Zeus creates woman, the bane of man's existence. He who does not marry dies miserably, he who does lives miserably, "and there is no cure for his plight. So there is no way to deceive or hide from the mind of Zeus, for not even noble Prometheus, son of Iapetos, escaped the heavy wrath of Zeus" (Theo. lines 612-615). Prometheus's attempt to prove his mental strength, wit, and cunning by mastering the king of the gods leads him only to hopelessness and ruin.

Four very different men—one strong, one compassionate, one clever, and one immortal—all attempt to accomplish their selfish goals through trickery. Deceit, motivated by preservation of dignity and acquisition of power, may give immediate results, but these results are as temporary as the method seems effective. Hesiod and Sophocles seem to understand and try to portray to their audiences that no matter how powerful or renowned a man or god may become, he is not exempt from endangering himself through his lies. The supposed justification of his actions through victory and reputation has little worth when deception brings only weakness and doom to gods and men alike.